Economic policies matters of the Crisis of 1970s

Introduction A capitalist economy system is comparable to a multifaceted machine that entails numerous capitalists firms and individuals, all making uncoordinated decisions in the economy.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Economic policies matters of the Crisis of 1970s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The many devices of this machine do not mechanically fit together. For example, when individuals resort to save a portion of their income, it does not imply that they will find people to borrow and invest it. The decisions made by individuals in the capitalist economy thus rely on the institutional framework in which they operate. If the institutional framework fail, the devises of the machine do not mesh, resulting in an economic crisis, as one witnessed in the 1970s (Reuss 1). Some economists in the U.S. have referred to this phenomenon as a social structure of accumulation, where capital accumulation is seen as a process where individuals and capitalist companies reinvest their profits to enlarge their operations in the economy. If these economic agents (individuals and firms) fail to reinvest, factories will close down, resulting to massive unemployment. This phenomenon is what we call economic crisis (Reuss 2). During the 1970 crisis, the United States’ economy experienced declining productivity, high energy prices, rising international competition and a high unemployment and inflation rates. Between 1973 and 1974, the price of fuel increased four-fold, resulting to high energy costs for both businesses and consumers. The annual rate of inflation rose to over 9.9% in 1974 while the annual unemployment rate was over 8.1% in 1975 (Reuss 12).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The economy appeared to be ensnared in stagflation, a phenomenon that is characterized by an amalgamatio n of low economic growth and soaring unemployment rates, coupled with high rates of inflation (Reuss 13). The economic downturn of the 1970s added to momentous changes in the institutional structures of the U.S. economic system. During the early stages of the crisis, the government implemented several expansionary fiscal policies to regulate economic activities. Labour unions were also active during this period. Later on, the economic crisis ushered in the neoliberal capitalism era that was characterized by weakened roles of the government and labour unions (Reuss 3). The Neoclassical (mainstream) economists often posit that if a capitalist economy is run on the precepts of static universal principles and that any infringement on the principles of the market- expansionary fiscal policies, labour union roles, industrial policies and government macroeconomic interventions- certainly implies disaster. However, the performance of the United States’ economy from 1940s to mid 1970s , a period called the ‘Golden Age’ contradicts this premise (Reuss 5). Historical data suggests that the U.S. economic performance was superior during the Golden Age when compared to other periods. Between early 1940 to mid 1970s, the annual economic growth was approximately 3.9%. The annual inflation rate was less than 1.9% for nearly half of the Golden age epoch and only exceeded the 5.9% mark while unemployment rate was about 5.8%. Moreover, the real pay per hour in many industrial companies was added to up to an average rate of 2.1% per annum.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Economic policies matters of the Crisis of 1970s specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The economic crisis of 1970s emphasized the need for fiscal policies to stabilize the economy, alleviate recessions and sustain full employment. For example, the U.S. government expenditure on consumption and investments was about 22% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1970s compared to previous periods (less than 20%). A number of key business sectors, such as communications, transportation, and banking and insurance were extremely regulated. Furthermore, the unionization rate rose to over 34.9% of the labour force and stabilized at 25.2% in the 1970s (Reuss 6). Rational Expectation Approach verses Modigliani’s Approach Franco Modigliani was one of the principal inventors of the neoclassical synthesis between the orthodox theory of value and the Keynesian’s principle of effective demand that dominated macroeconomic thoughts until the 1970s (Mongiovi 1). Many of his works reflected a distinctive sensitivity to the complexities of striking a balance between the roles of the state as an instrument of progressive reform and its capability for repression. The Modigliani approach for instance queried the conventional proposals concerning the impact of technological change on employment His approach rejected the a rgument that workers dislodged by technological changes in the economy would be re-employed immediately due to subsequent wage reduction and the growth of the investment goods sector (Mongiovi 3). Modigliani criticized the problems of capital deficiency that were overlooked in the standard discourses. He also censured the prospect of destructive recursive effects of the rationality theory of wage reductions on employment and aggregate demand (Mongiovi 4). As a remedial measure, his approach advocated for the theory of marginal productivity that would allow a partial substitution between labour and capital, resulting to the closest approximation to fiscal reality that is possible on the basis of rational expectation theory of a market economy (Mongiovi 4).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the contrary, the Rational Expectations Model proposes that economic agents employ the best possible economic theory to predict unemployment levels, price and wages. Market prices are expected to have all pertinent information needed to forecast and to make decisions. Each economic agent has his own forecast, which may differ from the actual prices. However, forecasted prices and wages will be spread around the actual prices and wages (Bortis 2). A significant facet of the Rational Expectations Model and the neoclassical model is that savings are invested. The market for new capital stocks creates equilibrium between savings and investment at full employment level via variation of the interest rate. The Walrasian model undeniably mirrors an absolutely self-governing economy, suggesting that there exists a strong inclination towards equilibrium. Employment and output are usually given at full employment levels such that a natural rate of unemployment- structural and voluntary-exis ts. Equilibrium is thus achieved through a market that functions efficiently. On the macroeconomic echelon, the demand curve depends on the real balance effect while the supply curve mirrors scarcity of resources. With a given amount of money, the macroeconomic demand rises when prices decline in the event of excess supply and vice versa. The Rational Expectation Approach is thus based on the assumption that a competitive market economy is constantly in equilibrium (Bortis 2). Neoclassical-Keynesian verses Rational Expectation Approach One of the major developments in economic theory during the economic crisis in 1970s was the emergence of the rational expectations approach to macroeconomic analysis. This theory is based on two fundamental premises: expectations are formed rationally; and that total supply is inelastic to the anticipated changes in the aggregate price level. The second hypothesis, postulates that a shift in total demand will influence output only and that the ensuin g price levels diverges from the expected price. The implication of the rational expectations theory is that fiscal and monetary policies cannot methodically stimulate expectation errors by the producers (McCallum 418). Therefore, on the basis of the second hypothesis, authorities are unable to design monetary and fiscal policies that can systematically influence unemployment and output rates. As a matter of fact, authorities can neither sustain high output permanently nor decrease the magnitude of output fluctuations around capacity levels. Although a rare output inflation trade-off exists due to unanticipated shocks, authorities cannot utilize this trade-off in any constructive manner (McCallum 419). In spite of the logical rigour and elegance of the Rational Expectations Approach, the Neoclassical-Keynesian school has generally rejected its policy implications. One of the key reasons relates to the prevalent belief that the pace of price-level changes needed in the rational expec tations approach is much greater than one witnessed in real economies. A significant outline of this disapproval focuses on the market-clearing facet of the rational expectations approach. For example, in the Sargent Wallace model, prices are assumed to be absolutely flexible such that aggregate demand and supply are adjusted to maintain equilibrium in each period. However, according to Neoclassical-Keynesian theory, prices adjustment is too slow to create equilibrium between demand and supply in each period (McCallum 419). However, some critics (neoclassical-Keynesian school) argue that the assumptions of the rationality approach are highly credible. The critics of the rationality approach point to the assumption that endows the private economic agents with perfect information about the monetary authority’s policy decisions and the economic structures. However, this account is not necessary to give way to the conclusion that monetary policy cannot be used as a stabilizing in strument. It is reasonable to make an assumption that expectations are created so that there is no systematic connection between the economic agent’s (firms and individual households) expectations errors and the information required by the authorities to be used to control the money stock (McCallum 432). Neoclassical-Keynesians verses Monetarist According to Modigliani, there are no apparent differences between the Neoclassical-Keynesians and Monetarists on fundamental macroeconomic issues. The Neo-Keynesian paradigm is quite consistent with key revolutionary macroeconomics theories developed in the past decades. A number of the main tenets of neoclassical-Keynesian school include: first, inelasticity of prices is a major impediment the major function of monetary policy. It also brings about the short run non-neutrality of money. Given that some prices are partially elastic, inflationary pressure stimulates relative price changes that have impact on welfare; second, the abras ions that exist in relatively profound monetary economies are second in the order of merit (Williamson Wright 13). These frictions encompass precise descriptions of specialization that creates information asymmetry in the market, thus giving credence to media as a platform for exchanging information; third, there exist a short-run Philips curve swap between output and inflation (or unemployment). Monetary policy can stimulate a short run rise in the aggregate output by raising the rate of inflation; finally, the central bank is seen as the institution that can set up short term nominal interest rate with respect to macroeconomic conditions (Williamson Wright 13). Thus, the neoclassical-Keynesians support the current role of central banks with respect to instituting monetary policies to increase aggregate output. The clear similarity between the neoclassical-Keynesian school and monetarist is that they both support the role of central bank as an institution that can stimulate output through monetary policies. According to Modigliani, both schools are in concurrence that achieving a low inflation rate should be the main focus of any monetary policy. Moreover, monetary policy is seen as a process that determines the volume of money in circulation. The optimal monetary policy entails reducing the inconsistency in the growth of monetary aggregate. The two schools also agree that although sticky prices are important in producing short-run non-neutralities, they are irrelevant to monetary policy. Moreover, inflation and inflation uncertainty bring about welfare losses in the economy. Both schools give credence to the existence of a short-run Philips curve trade off although the monetarists argue that the central bank should not attempt to utilize it (Williamson Wright 14). The Differences between Rational expectation approach Monetarist One of the key facets of the neoclassical economics is that in order to find out the economic consequence of a theoretical change in government policy, such as tax cut, it is essential to consider the likelihood of individual households and businesses reacting to changes in government policy by making their own economic choices. Thus, according to the neoclassical economic theory, expectations of households and businesses are designed in the most perfect way according to the information accessible to them. This phenomenon is called rational expectations (Espinosa Russell 18). However, the rational expectations approach has attracted criticism from the monetarist school since it requires unrealistically high level of economic information and exceptional forecasting abilities by firms and households (Espinosa Russell 22). On the other hand, the basic tenets of monetarism emerged from a conference at the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis in 1970. Significant precursors to this school included Samuelson (1956), who presented a model of money in general equilibrium, and Lucas (1972), whose writings ignited the rat ional expectations rebellion and with it, a shift towards integrating vital macroeconomic theories. The monetarist differ from the rational approach in a number of significant ways: first, since the rational approach ignores crucial elements of economic theory, their policy recommendations can be severely erroneous; the fiscal policy is vital for the effect of monetary policy; as opposed to the rational approach, monetary economics can utilize macroeconomic theory in other areas, such as public economics and finance (Williamson Wright 14). Friedman, who represented the old monetarist ideas, argued that although money was any object that could be employed as a medium of exchange, it was irrelevant with respect to the analysis of monetary policy (Williamson Wright 13). While old monetarist were critical of the role of the central bank on monetary policy, the rational expectations approach posited that the role of t central bank was necessary in order to institute a dynamic monetary po licy to counterbalance aggregate instability rather than leaving it to the private sector (Fisher 213). According to the rationality approach, the central bank’s ability to influence allocation of resources relies on its ability to influence real interest rates and therefore savings. Expansionary monetary policy reduces the real interest rate by increasing the anticipated inflation rate (Fisher 215). On the contrary, the old monetarist stressed that monetary policy was non-neutral in the short-run and its utilization by central bank would increase inflation rate. Thus, the monetary policy should focus only on long run inflation (Williamson Wright 14). Works Cited Bortis, Heinrich. Remarks on the use of Mathematics in economic Theory. The Example of the Appropriate Macroeconomic Foundations of Financial analysis. Switzerland: University of Fribourg, n.d. Espinosa, Marco, and Russell Steven. History and Theory of the NAIRU: A Critical Review. Atlanta: Federal Reserve Bank of At lanta, 1997. Fiher, Stanley. On Activist Monetary Policy with Rational Expectations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. McCallum, Bennet. â€Å"Price Level Adjustments and the Rational Expectations Approach to Macroeconomic Stabilization Policy.† Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 10.4 (1978): 418-436. Mongiovi, Gary. â€Å"Franco Modigliani and the socialist State.† New York’s: John’s University Jamaica. n.d. Reuss, Alejandro. â€Å"That ‘70s Crisis†. What can the crisis of U.S. capitalism in the 1970s teach us about the current crisis and its possible outcomes? Dollar Sense. Web. November, 2009 http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2009/1109reuss.html Williamson, Stephen Wright, Randall. â€Å"New Monetarist Economy†, Key Developments in Monetary Economics Conference. The Federal Reserve Board. Web. https://www.federalreserve.gov/events/conferences/kdme2009/HTML/paper2/index.html This essay on Economic policies matters of the Crisis of 1970s was written and submitted by user Jaylah Q. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Depression essays

The Depression essays If you lived between the years 1929 and 1940, would you survive? The stock market crash of 1929 was an indication of serious underlying problems in the United States economy, but it was not the sole cause of the Great Depression. The crash merely made the cracks in Americas superficial prosperity much more obvious. And, since the causes of the economic crises were complex, the solution to the economic problems facing the United States would be complicated as well (Rogge 67-68). After the great crash, the American public sought a scapegoat for the economic collapse. Some held president Hoover responsible, others targeted the three Bs; brokers, bankers, and businessmen. But, the cause of the Great Depression could not be attributed to one individual or even a group of people. The roots of the Great Depression were in the very structure of the American Economy (Rogge 67-68). The Great Depression, a major even in the United States history. The Depression lasted through most of the 1930s. Everyones life changed greatly during that time. Millions of people lost all their savings. Seasons were a part of what some people ate during the Depression. They lived on farms and when the crops did not grow, their menus changed. And, many people ended up sleeping in a shelter for the unemployed. One farmer describes the close friendships made during this time. He explains how there was no relationship between income and the enjoyment of life (Looper). Ninety-nine year old Fentress County man recalls the Great Depression era. Enlo Looper of Clarkrange, Tennessee was only nineteen years old when the Depression began. From 1930 to 1940 some people had it tougher than others. Some just barely got by, and some did not live to see the end of the Depression. Fortunately, for this farmer, Enlo Looper, lived to retell this hard time in Americas history. While Enlo and his family had it easier th...

Human Resource Issues Facing Companies

Human Resource Issues Facing Companies Introduction Human resource is the group of individuals who build up the work force of a company, a business or an organization. This is the team that helps steer an organization to success. The human resource department is the division charged with the responsibility of seeing to it that this team is fully effective.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Resource Issues Facing Companies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is also expected to maintain a good relationship among employee. Issues causing tension between leaders of an organization and employees are also handled by this department. The department is also charged with other responsibilities such as interviewing, attracting, selecting, training, assessing and hiring employees. This is so as to ensure stable work flow in an organization and also avoid unnecessary delays in line of duty. Workers’ welfare and grievances are also looked into by the depar tment and necessary recommendations made to the management. The human resource department is vital to a business regardless of how big or small the business is (Merkle 2006). This paper seeks to analyze factors affecting the human resource department. The paper will take as its case study human resource departments in New Zealand, a country that was hit by the Christchurch earthquake. This had devastating effects on the native businesses and to the economy at large. The human resource sector was not spared. This is largely due to the massive displacement of population. Recommendations will also be made on possible measures to mitigate these effects. Government efforts in trying to control the situation will also be discussed. Challenges Facing the Human Resource Department Despite its importance to an organization, the department faces numerous challenges. The major problem facing the department is talent shrink (Guyton 2009). As explained earlier, human resource is the actual workf orce that drives a company or business.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Without talent and skills, dismal performance is likely to be recorded by a business (Mayo 2008). Lack of talent also lowers the level of expertise exhibited by workers in an organization. The Christchurch earthquake forced many people to migrate from their homes and places of work. This caused brain drain with many businesses and companies left with few workers. Work negativity among employees is also a major challenge facing the human resource departments in many companies. Lack of job satisfaction among workers creates negativity. This may also be as a result of unfavourable environmental conditions. Natural disasters such as the Christchurch earthquake instil fear among workers and kill their morale. This fear leads to unfavourable working conditions. This trauma greatly reduces the efficie ncy of the workers and the businesses’ output. Workers also lose faith in the business’ success since they feel all their hard work would be in vain in case a future disaster destroys the business. Managing demographics has also proved to be a difficult task in the human resource department. This is the inability to balance the population of both young and old in the workforce. The young population is believed to harbour great ideas while the old population is considered to be knowledgeable and experienced. It is therefore important to integrate the two in equal measures to reap maximum benefits. Natural disasters displace populations especially the young and able. This is because they have lesser ties and are more flexible. Such people move to more secure regions in search of jobs leaving their old posts vacant. The old are left behind to run the affairs of the business in the absence of their young counterparts. This young population would also serve as future leader s of the businesses. Such businesses have no future in the market. Increased cost of labour is also a major problem facing the human resource departments. When a disaster occurs (as was the case with Christchurch earthquake), businesses are faced with brain drain as a result of migration. This causes an increase in the demand for labour.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Human Resource Issues Facing Companies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Those experts left behind resort to hiking the cost of their services to replace the departed ones. Additional salaries for workers increase the operating costs for these businesses resulting to a decline in turnover. A scenario arises where businesses pay more to workers yet they are making less than before. This can at times lead to the collapse of these businesses (O’Brien 2009). Evidence Gathering Procedures The article uses New Zealand as its reference point. Having be ing hit by a natural disaster, the area was more vulnerable to problems facing modern business firms and settings. Focus is more likely to be on the human resource departments since they are the ones charged with restoring order in the businesses. There was need to restructure the human resource so as to prevent more damaging outcomes. Businesses used in the research are chosen randomly and the research team immediately embarked on the study. The researchers analyzed the performance of the businesses prior to and after the earthquake and documented their findings. Human resource department leaders were interviewed and their views as to the state of affairs before and after the Christchurch earthquake recorded. Those who sought anonymity were assured that their identity will not be revealed. Issues Facing the Human Resource Departments The first blow to the human resource department was talent shrink as earlier indicated. This is however a common problem in the department. It results to poor working skills and is injurious to a business since it signifies deficiency in expertise (Ulrich 1996). This phenomenon was common in the case of New Zealand whereby many people moved out of the country to seek alternative jobs in an attempt to escape the effects of the earthquake. The workforce left behind comprised of less experienced and talented people who found it hard to reverse the downward trend. Because of this demand for workers, the cost of labour shot up. This meant that the businesses would pay more for labour provided to them despite their losses and the diminishing returns. Migration of the country’s population also robbed the businesses of the much needed market for their goods and services. This triggered more problems than solutions for the businesses some of which closed down due to diminished returns.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Work negativity is also a great problem facing the human resource department in many businesses. Considering the case of the Christchurch earthquake in New Zealand, billions worth of property was lost. Those who suffered lost the morale to work hard and felt that their days of hard work had gone to waste. Some of the workers lost their homes and jobs due to tragedies such as collapsing of houses. Scores of people lost their lives during the tragedy and left their loved ones disoriented. Such uninspired workers are likely to produce diminishing returns that are of no economic importance (Towers 2007). Great demographic variations are also a common problem facing the human resource department. General imbalance between the old and the young in a business is injurious to the business. This inhibits flow of ideas in the business. It also puts the life and future of the business at risk because the young are supposed to replace the old upon their retirement. The old also gives guidance t o the young because of their accumulated knowledge and experience in line of duty. It is not surprising to see that many businesses partner the old with the young to facilitate flow of ideas. In the case of New Zealand, the earthquake claimed the lives of some of the dwellers while others migrated to avoid this disaster. This left a void in many businesses. Majority of those who fled the effects of the Christchurch earthquake were young individuals who sought to find better living and working conditions without fear and risks. Native businesses had to start employee recruitment exercises to fill the vacant positions. A lot of time and other resources were also used before the workforce could start functioning properly. Problems facing the human resource sector can be compared to a chain reaction where one action gives rise to another and the chain keeps repeating itself. Efforts to mitigate the effects of one action indirectly lead to a new reaction. As explained earlier in this pap er, one problem leads to another. Talents shrink causes demand for skilled labour. Rise in demand for labour thus results to rising costs of labour (DeGraff 2010). Increasing cost of labour will also lead to inflation. Inflation triggers increased spending and workers loose morale since every penny earned goes into settling of bills and into household consumption. Work negativity arises and workers loose the urge to work hard because of unfavourable returns. Growing dissatisfaction then results to workers moving out of the country and out of jobs to work in areas with better rewards. The migration of workers in search of better working conditions leads to demographic imbalances in the business. This demographic imbalance threatens the life of the business. This means that the ratio of old to young workers is unfavourable. This may be as a result of worker migration. This leads us back to the beginning of the cycle that is talent shrink. This is what happened in the case of New Zeala nd. Attempts to stabilize the economy by offering loans to members of public led to inflation. The inflation makes living standards intolerable and the country’s population resort to moving out of the country. The migration of the country’s population also results to talent shrink that triggers a demand for labour that leads to an increase in the cost of labour (Wright 2011). Inflation leads to work negativity which makes people to move out in search of better returns. Migration also triggers demographic imbalance further aggravating the situation. The cycle repeats itself over time. Measures should be devised to try and change this turn of events for the better. Recommendations for the Government To try and change the situation, the paper makes some recommendations on what governments should do to normalise the situation. These measures would be aimed at preventing the recurrence of the negative effects and to change the economy once and for all. The governments shoul d start by initiating policies that will reduce the flow of money in the economy. This will be made possible by suspending lending of money to the businesses. The economy should be given an opportunity to heal itself gradually. Research has shown that pumping more money into an already ailing economy is not beneficial. To stop financial institutions from lending, the government will resort to measures such as increasing its lending rates to the banks. People should also be sensitized on the negative effects of borrowing (Conaty 2011). The government can also discourage brain drain through imposing policies that discourage travelling out of the country (Esbon 2010). The government could also impose penalties to individuals going to work outside the country and encourage the spirit of patriotism. People should be encouraged to focus on the bright future ahead rather than on the dull present (Ziment 2008). The government should also import skilled labour if possible. It should also res ort to training its own citizens to curb shortage (Elwood 1996). Expertise can be said to be the driving force behind prosperity. The government can also intervene and help in the reconstruction of destroyed structures. This does not necessarily mean pumping more money into the economy. Unskilled labour can be mobilized to undertake the reconstruction exercise. Conclusion It is a fact beyond doubt that human resource departments are the driving force behind any successful business. The department should therefore be strengthened and its recommendations implemented fully. Factors facing the human resource department also affect the entire economy (Esbon 2010). The government should be at the forefront in implementing policies that would strengthen the economy thus aiding the human resource department. References Conaty, Bill. 2011. The Talent Masters: Why Smart Leaders Put People Before Numbers. New York. Crown Publishing Group. DeGraff, Jonathan. 2010. The Changing Environment of Pr ofessional HR Associations. Boston. Harvard Business School Press. Elwood, Hellwood. 1996. Trends Toward a Closer Integration of Vocational Education and Human Resources Development. New York. Crown Publishing Group. Esbon, John. 2010. Insight on human resource development. New York. Free Press. Guyton, Hall. 2009. Human Resource. London. McGraw-Hill. Mayo, Elton. 2008. Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company. Boston. Harvard University Press. Merkle, Judith A. 2006. Management and Ideology. California. University of California Press. OBrien, Michael. 2009. HRs Take on The Office Human Resource Executive. California. California University Press. Towers, David. 2007. Human Resource Management Essays. California. University of California Press. Ulrich, Dave. 1996. Human Resource Champions. The Next Agenda for Adding Value and Delivering Results. Boston. Harvard Business School Press. Wright, Patrick. 2011. CHRO Challenge: Building Organizational, Functional, and Personal Talent. Bo ston. Harvard Business School Press. Ziment, Peter. 2008. Managing Human Resource in Disasters. New York. Free Press.

Burning Chrome An Analysis

Burning Chrome An Analysis The story is about Bobby, Jack and Rikki. Bobby is an expert hacker specializing in software while Jack is the same but specializes in hardware. The story begins in Bobby’s loft, the two men huddling together in an attempt to hack into a system that will make them rich beyond their wildest dreams.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Burning Chrome: An Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At the end of their struggle they were triumphant in the biggest score of their young lives but they paid a terrible price for it. Interestingly, they were regular hackers who were content in making money but not more than enough that they will get caught, at the end they wanted to get rich quick because they know that they are getting older and slower but more importantly because they are in-love with the same woman but only Jack knows about it. Character and Commentary The main characters: Bobby, Jack and Rikki went through a major change in their personality and in their worldview and how they tried to deal with the sudden transformation of their individual lives. Although they have different backgrounds, Bobby seemed a true-blooded nerd who always loved computers while Jack seems the more adventurous type who happens to also like computers and its ability to make money without going through the rigors of the rat race. Rikki on the other hand can be compared to a girl who came from the boondocks and content to enjoy life and focused not in the more serious side of life but in how she can buy the things that she believes are important to her. All came from different starting points but they are converging into one goal and one place – they are willing to go deep into cyberspace to make a great deal of money doing something very risky because they believe that striking it rich is the only way that they can be happy. In their intertwined lives of Bobby, Jack, and Rikki, the author – Willia m Gibson – was given a platform to talk about the problems faced by young men and women who had to deal with the same anxieties and desires as the people of an earlier generation but this time around they had to do it with the advent of new technology that is both difficult and scary to deal with. This is also a reflection of the impact of modern technology to the lives of the young as they grapple with new ways to survive and thrive in a world controlled by things that are very powerful and yet unseen and misunderstood.Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The characters in the story depicted the kind of lifestyle evident in the post-modern world. Bobby is someone who has great talent and he is able to bend the rules because of that talent and yet he is lost. In the past, society was predictable. Parents would aspire their children to be physicians, lawyers, eng ineers, accountants, etc. and the moment this decision was made the children will conform to the dictates of society, partially because they also have the same values and they have the same goals and also partially because they are also afraid of the backlash of rebelling against these norms. In the post-modern world however there are alternative ways to make a great deal of money and there area also alternative ways to gain the respect of people. Bobby, Jack and Rikki may not possess the credentials and the pedigree that would have given them access to Wall Street or some glitzy establishment that will ensure them not only of a fat paycheck but the adoration of the crowd, and yet they have the power to experience the lifestyle of the rich and famous even if they technically do not posses the means. This is their dilemma; they live in the grey area of society. They are not criminals based on the ancient way of interpreting what a crime is and what is the typical profile of a law bre aker. This is because they commit crimes without even leaving their homes and without serious physical exertion except the slight movement of the hands and the fingers to type certain key phrases, keywords and passwords. In the beginning Bobby was the picture of confidence and skill but at the end he was reduced to someone who cannot function without the things that he can use either it is liquor or women. In the beginning Jack was seen as an able partner, an equally talented intrusion specialist like Bobby but as the story progresses the reader sees more and more of his stump, his hand was cut-off some time ago and this has given him an insecurity that is hard to explain but painful nonetheless especially when it comes to his love for Rikki. At the end of the story the reader witnessed a complete transformation in their lives. Bobby who was supposed to be always in control was revealed to be a person controlled by lust. Jack who at first was seen as a very capable man was slowly se en as a man struggling with a handicap. He was a one-armed man who felt that there are so many things that he cannot do.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Burning Chrome: An Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More His love for Rikki was the ultimate proof that he could not live life without Bobby for he will only love the things and the people that Bobby loves. He ended being with him, used like a crutch, instead of being with the person that he loves and the things that he really wanted to do and accomplish in life. Human Problem and Human Solution According to Theodore Sturgeon a science fiction story is built around human beings and therefore the fictionalized narrative with futuristic setting and mind-boggling technology are just there as a backdrop for something that is more important than the material realm; it is just the foundation used to build up a story about a human problem and a human solution. The stor y â€Å"Burning Chrome† is replete with gadgets and technology but these were all just smokescreens because at the heart of the story was the struggle of two men. They knew that they are not going anywhere socially and economically speaking. It is a struggle faced by many people. There are just so many people out there who cannot move forward and feels like they have no choice but to simply stagnate. There is also the all too familiar conflict between two friends, they complement each other like cookies and cream, like coffee and sugar but they are also so much different. They use different methods on how to accomplishing things and yet they are also so like-minded that they can finish each others sentences. And finally they are so close that they even ended up loving the same woman. This is the conflict of the story, two people who are inseparable because they create perfect music together and yet circumstances in their lives dictate that they had to part ways. Gibson create d a story that is similar to those found in Greek tragedy. Two people, that the audience can consider to be brothers had to destroy each other to realize their dreams and to fulfill their desires, but the woman of their dreams are not even interested in them, she is only there because of the action, the thrill and the things that she can get from them. Dealing with the Alien Another facet of a good fiction story is the element that deals with the alien. It could be an alien planet, an alien being or alien surroundings. It has been also said that the authors did not really mean to talk specifically about aliens but simply using a metaphor to talk about life. And indeed it is true that in the quest for life, in the journey that everyone has to take he or she will inevitably experience an encounter with the alien.Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the case of Bobby and Jack they needed to confront an idea that is very foreign to them and it is the fact that they needed to find another job, to find another source of income. But they are hackers for as long as they can remember and they cannot imagine doing anything different. Nevertheless, the day was fast approaching that they really need to abandon their pirate ways and that fact alone has brought them intense anxiety and foreboding because they could not imagine how to find meaning outside their current world. Conclusion It was supposed to be fiction and it was supposed to be about gadgets, technology and the future but it was so much more. The author was simply using everything, the language used, the computers, and the various activities that the characters engaged in to illustrate the complexities of life. The characters represented humanity and the challenges and pressures that mankind had to deal with in the past decades. The world was radically changed by technolog y that it now dictates man’s way of life. Bobby, Jack, and Rikki also illustrated real life problems that include money, love, friendship, boredom, lust, and everything else related to it. Gibson, William. â€Å"Burning Chrome.† Web.

Victim of Servre Depessive Disorder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Victim of Servre Depessive Disorder - Essay Example Here, too, Betsy is ripe for succumbing to the availability heuristic on the easily remembered situation of her brother, and the recent data coming from her parents. Framing contributes to Betsy's anxiety because of the natural tendency of children to believe parents. "Framing is a process of selective control over media content or public communication"(Wikipedia.org, 2006). Probably without realizing it, Betsy's parents have exerted "selective control over media content" by not researching the facts further, thereby leaving Betsy with only two assumed facts; one, her brother suffers from severe depression; and two, there is a 40 percent chance she will also suffer from depression. The parents comment constitutes a "frame" that easily calls to mind the common mis-perception that depressive diseases are hereditary. When in fact, the list of causes determining depressive disorders is lengthy and complicated. Confirmation bias will add to Betsy's depressing conclusions because it is "a phenomenon wherein decision makers have been shown to actively seek out and assign more weight to evidence that confirms their hypothesis, and ignore or under-weigh evidence that could disconfirm their hypoth

Case analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Case analysis - Essay Example on the increase due to shortage of water sources and the high rate of population growth hence little water and its sources should be conserved and managed carefully. Water is quite and essential, scarce and consumable resource; it should be managed at all cost. Water management processes are multi objected in that there are many reasons for conserving water; domestic use, agriculture, hydro power generation, recreation and recycling. Many water conflict management projects have been aimed at economic developments, protecting the environment and other strategic interests of the stakeholders (Ines, 2007). Communication is quite important when it comes to solving of any conflict or dispute. In the contemporary society, conflicts and disputes are a normal occurrence due to the social, political, economical and cultural differences between people. Water is quite a unique and vital resource that has no substitute. However, in many parts of the world the quality and quantity of water is decreasing due to exploitation by humans through their various activities. This has posed many problems to many as most depend on water (Aaron, 2007). As a result of water shortage, conflicts have risen between different societies, communities and even states over the existing natural water sources. Although water based wars have never occurred, tension still lies over water catchment areas as to who should control the water. According to Dabelko (2010), managing of water helps in resolving conflicts which are brought about by different reasons. Management of water can be used as a medium for settling conflicts in different perspectives. Firstly, good water management practices enhance good neighborliness. Through water conservation, different communities or people co-operate thus enhancing harmony between them. Water related harmony plays a vital role in solving of conflicts. All living beings rely on water for survival and so in order for people to live they will have conserved their

How has the Zapatista Army of National Liberation contributed to Research Paper

How has the Zapatista Army of National Liberation contributed to Democracy in Mexico - Research Paper Example They started out as a small group of progressive Indians which eventually grew into thousands. They organized themselves in the jungle, away from the prying eyes of the government and its ruthless military. The EZLN’s history did not happen overnight. It was the product of careful and clandestine planning and organizing. â€Å"We did that for many years, and we did it in secret, without making a stir.   In other words, we joined forces in silence.3† After ten years of organizing and training in the jungles of Chiapas, The Ejercito Zapatista de Liberacion or EZLN was born, otherwise known as the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. They took the name of Emiliano Zapata, a Mexican Revolution hero who championed land reform in Mexico and is also celebrated as the champion of the indigenous people in Southern Mexico.4 EZLN is a revolutionary group that adheres to the ideals of non-violence. Throughout their history, the only instance of violence on record is the 12 days of armed fighting following the January 1, 1994 takeover of four municipalities in Chiapas, namely, San Cristobal de las Casas, las Margaritas, Altamiro, and Ocosingo.5 Almost apologetic to the affected citizens and civilians, they put great emphasis on their declaration that the armed struggle was a measure of last resort because their previous nonviolent actions received little to no government attention and response.6 After 12 days of armed fighting and bloodshed on both sides, the Mexican government and the Zapatista entered into a ceasefire to make way for a peace process. Since then, the EZLN have successfully continued on the fight without shedding blood, combatant or civilians although they have continued with their member’s training in the handling of weapons and arsenals. Nevertheless, the Zapatista is still a military movement. Oxymoron as it may sound, but the Zapatista is an armed movement that carries its struggle in nonviolent ways.7 In the very same way that the EZLN seem to contradict itself on its position on the issues of violence and rebellion, their ideology is also a subject of debate. This confusion is brought by the lack of a categorical statement from the Zapatistas themselves as to their specific ideology. Their enumeration of goals and demands which could be identified with the ideals and ends sought by groups from both ends, including those in between of the political spectrum does little to no help either. In their various declarations, they merely refer to themselves as the â€Å"simple and humble† â€Å"Zapatistas of the EZLN.†8 On the one hand, there are some who observes that the EZLN rose out of the ranks of the leftist movements that espouse Marxist-Leninist ideals. It is argued that their demands enumerated in the First Declaration of the Lancandon Jungle are in accord with the leftist sentiments. The EZLN’s demands include "work, land, housing, food, health, education, independence, liberty, dem ocracy, justice, and

Australian Immigration Policies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Australian Immigration Policies - Essay Example Within the party, his evident energetic commitment to public service and his active loyalty to Labour Party principles and political precepts contributed to both his growing popularity within Labour Party circles and ever-increasing public visibility. It was thus that in 1931 he became the President of the Victorian Labour Party and, in 1940, the MP for Melbourne in the Australian House of Representatives. During the war years, he served as Minister of Information in Curtin’s government and, from 1945 to 1949, the Minister of Immigration in Chifley’s government. As may be deduced from the foregoing biographical information, Calwell was a consummate politician, as evidenced in his elected to Victorian Labour Party presidency, his election to the House of Representatives and, importantly, in his appointment to ministerial positions in two consecutive governments. More importantly, he was a consummate politician of strong beliefs, largely evidenced in his staunch commitmen t to Roman Catholicism. The importance of the above-cited biographical information lies in its exposition of Calwell’s political temperament and the clues it provides to his visions of and for Australian society. As some scholars have pointed out, amongst whom one may mention Albinski, Ozdowski, and Jupp, Caldwell’s background immediately informed his political temperament and, thus, his immigration policies.... from the foregoing biographical information, Calwell was a consummate politician, as evidenced in his elected to Victorian Labour Party presidency, his election to the House of Representatives and, importantly, in his appointment to ministerial positions in two consecutive governments. More importantly, he was a consummate politician of strong beliefs, largely evidenced in his staunch commitment to Roman Catholicism. The importance of the above-cited biographical information lies in its exposition of Calwell's political temperament and the clues it provides to his visions of and for Australian society. As some scholars have pointed out, amongst whom one may mention Albinski,4 Ozdowski5 and Jupp,6 Caldwell's background immediately informed his political temperament and, thus, his immigration policies. As the descendant of immigrants to Australia, he was staunchly pro-immigration. As an Anglo-Saxon Catholic, however, whose loyalties were to Western Christian heritage and culture, he was unequivocally pro-White European immigration to Australia, and not immigration per se.7 In essence, he advocated European immigration to Australia, as opposed to Asian, for example, because he saw in European immigration the fortification and solidification of Australia's Western and Christian cultural heritage and Anglo-Saxon Caucasian ethnic majority. In other words, Calwell advocated a selective immigration policy which would constructively contribute to the populating of Australia, without undermining the nation's hegemonic culture or introducing challen ges to its Anglo-Saxon Christian ethnic majority. Informed and influenced by Calwell's background and political temperament, Australia's post-World War II immigration policies was a highly selective one.

Thinkertoys Week 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Thinkertoys Week 3 - Essay Example eeping in view the methodology used by Michalko, it becomes quite easy to explore the problems at individual, collective and corporate levels, and finding out the solutions for these problems as well. Michalko focuses on complete assessment of a problem by examining each and every aspect of it, rather concentrating only one part of the problem, which, according to him, may put the solution of the problem at stake. The same is applied by analyzing one’s personal problems in respect of searching out a job. I have adopted the Phoenix checklist in order to put my questions and their possible answers on the basis of Michalko’s thinking strategy. The solution of a problem is extremely necessary due to the very reality that a problem creates difficulties for a person while thinking and analyzing, so it is very important to make plan to get rid of that problem. The solution of a problem helps the individuals proceed to some goals determined for making progress in life; it is th erefore comprehensive assessment of problem and determining of its all possible solutions is most required for individuals. I have the problem in finding out job as soon as I complete my degree from the university. The declining global economy is the ugliest hurdle on the way of the fresh graduates while penetrating into the job market. In addition, all the organizations demand previous experiences from the job-seekers, which is really a hard nut to crack for the fresh graduates. The analyses of business environment view recommendations and approach a must for entering the job market. Moreover, the rising unemployment at global level has created the proportion of competitors against every vacancy to a great extent. Further, since education has got popularity everywhere in the world, the percentage of educated people has also increased, but the job opportunities are far less than the percentage of educated people, which serves as a serious threat for getting an attractive job. All these points

Plato Allegory of the Cave Essay Example for Free

Plato Allegory of the Cave Essay The Allegory of the Cave is one of Greek philosopher Plato’s most well known works. It is an extended allegory, where humans are depicted as being imprisoned by their bodies and what they perceive by sight only. In the allegory of the cave Plato wanted to show how true reality is not always what it seems. A group of prisoners were chained up in a cave since there childhood, each prisoner was chained to each other by their heads.The prisoners were forced to face a blank wall while they were in the cave. Behind the prisoners there was a fire however the prisoners could not see the fire but between the prisoners and the fire there would a be puppet show where people would walk, talk and carry objects to keep the prisoners amused. The prisoners perceive only shadows of the people and things passing on the walkway; the prisoners hear echoes of the talk coming from the shadows. They perceive the shadows and echoes as reality. Whilst in the cave one prisoner is set free. He stands up and turns around and is forced to look at the fire, after the pain in his eyes from the fire he struggles to see anything. The prisoner is dragged out of the cave and into the world above. At first, the prisoner is so dazzled by the light that he can only look at shadows, then at reflections, then finally at the real objects like trees, flowers and houses. He sees that these are even more real than the shadows were, and that those were only copies of reality. The prisoner has now reached the cognitive stage of thought. He has caught his first glimpse of the most real thing, which is the Forms. In the film The Matrix, the humans trapped in the Matrix are like the people in the cave. They see only what the machines want them to see, but they believe they see reality as it really is. They accept what their senses tell them all that exists. Neo suspects that this is all a lie, but he’s not sure how the Matrix works. Morpheus, who runs the resistance to the Matrix, brings Neo into the Resistance, believing that Neo is the person who has been foreseen by the Oracle to be able to defeat the Matrix In The Allegory of the Cave the people creating the shadows represent the powerful people in society. In The Matrix the puppet-handlers are the machines controlled by Artificial Intelligence. The puppet-handlers use fake surroundings as a way to manipulate the information that the prisoners receive. While the prisoners are being fooled and influenced by the fake reality, the puppet-handlers are too because they are also living inside the artificial world they have created as well. Neo lives in world which is controlled by the matrix agents just like Platos prisoner lives in a world (cave) controlled by the form holders. They both manage to escape from the world as they know it and come to know the world as it really is. Neo, with some help from Morpheus, comes to realize that the life he as been leading so far is nothing but the life of a slave, shaped under the control of the Matrix, protected by the agents. Platos prisoner comes to realize first that the shadows he is looking at are not the truth, they are just shadows cast on the wall by the form holders. He sees the fire and as he follows the path which leads him outside of the cave, he sees the sun and everything else illuminated by it. The characters, simultaneously experience shock and then a feeling of fear when they first perceive what is real. Neo is able to see how humans are grown, hooked on wires, an element which symbolizes control just like the chains which tie the prisoners in Platos cave. In the movie as Morpheus and the group decided to leave the matrix they get attacked by the agents, the agents in the movie are just like the government in the allegory. Morpheus decided to flight against the agents will the rest of the group including Neo decided to get out of the matrix but what they dont know is that they were set up by one of there own Cypher. Cypher hates knowing the truth he wants to go back to his normal comfortable life in the matrix he doesnt want to be part of the experience anymore, so he makes a deal with the agents to get his normal life back he tricks Morpheus. The agents and the government are the same they are like the puppets in the allegory fooling the society to make them believe what they want me to believe not allowing them to see what is the truth. Unlike Plato’s prisoner, who managed to find his way out of the cave without any help from others, Neo is helped out by Morpheus. Neo is then faced with a moment of choice would he take the blue pill and stay in the world of the matrix which is the world of the senses or take the red pill, and come to know reality as it objectively exists. He chooses the red pill therefore giving himself the opportunity to experience the world of the mind, the real world and finds it as mind-blowing as Plato’s prisoner finds the enlighten world outside of the cave. The Mirror right after Neo took the red pill and the distorted spoon illusion before Neo went to the Oracle are simply products of the mind. It is in Plato’s Allegory of the cave where this illusion is happening. It is the mind that makes the spoon and the mirror distorted. It is the mind that makes the spoon inexistent, which is considered to be the truth. This spoon is the copy of the spoon of perfection in the world of forms. The spoon does not move by itself but Neo makes it move. In the Allegory Plato says that the freed prisoner would be confused at what he saw. When Neo is finally confronted with the real world, he is in a state of uncertainty. The realization of the truth is so overwhelming that he throws up and passes out. In The Allegory of the Cave, the Freed prisoner might even feel that what he was seeing now was the illusion and the shadows on the wall were actually more real. The freed prisoners first reaction would be to turn around and return to the false reality because it is less painful and more familiar to him. According to Plato, the freed prisoner must have started to question what he saw in front of him and wondered about where the shadows came from. He must have sensed that something was wrong and he wanted to know the truth. This theme is also found in the movie, Neo is very much like the freed prisoner. As Morpheus tells Neo, Youre here because you know something. Morpheus realizes that Neo has a place in society and is there because of what he knows. For Neo to realise this Morpheus says ‘free your mind, let go of doubt’. In conclusion, Platos story of the cave brings up many philosophical points; and, most importantly, it addresses the issue of societys role in our lives. Trinity tells Neo ‘The Matrix can not tell you who you are.’ It seems that the differences between The Allegory of the Cave and The Matrix do not prevent them from telling a similar story about the unreliability of the senses. We find Neo, at the end of the film, doing more than simply bending the laws of physics with the Matrix. It seems like he has stepped almost entirely out of that very world. He does not, however, appear in two places at once, but his destruction of one of the agents, and his ability to fly, says that the laws of physics are bent.

Butch and femme roles of lesbians

Butch and femme roles of lesbians Butch and femme roles were extremely important to the community in the forties and fifties; it was the butch role that was the most visible, and therefore the most likely to cause public scorn (Weissman and Fernie). The two sources, The Reproduction of Butch Femme Roles by Madeline Davis and Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Forbidden Love by Aerlyn Weisman and Lynne Fernie focus particularly on the function of the butch role among working class lesbians in Buffalo. These sources draw on articles, oral histories and interviews of lesbians from the early twentieth century. Both the resources state that, although gender-appropriate styles and behaviors were rigidly enforced in order to maintain a clear distinction between the sexes, butch womens choice to not only reject traditional femininity but to also actively adopt masculinity was perceived as a threat to the very order of society and a prelude to social chaos. Despite the fear, and likelihood of harassment by police and other strai ght men, the courage of butches to claim their identities in many ways prepared the way for later generations of lesbians to break free from the narrow conventions of socially constructed womanhood and claim access to a kind of power traditionally held only by men (Weisman and Fernie). As a result, male representations of lesbian sexuality have had the most influence in shaping attitudes towards butch and femme identities throughout the twentieth century. Such representations have almost always assumed the lesbian role -playing is an imitation of heterosexuality. The main theory underlying the feminist disregard of role playing is that roles depend on sexual difference, which is naturally hierarchical, polarizing, and oppressive. Sexual difference is the grounds on which heterosexual roles are built, and thus contains within it an inherently unequal distribution of power. In the relationship of a butch and femme, since the identities of both are built on popular cultural stereotypes of male and female behavior, they tend to reinforce the inequality in power inherent in this dichotomy. In addition, in most cases one of the partners is active, strong, dominant, and initiating whereas the other partner is passive, weak, submissive, and enduring. The partner who is dominant in this equation mimics the role of a male in a heterosexual relationship, whereas the passive, weak and submissive characteristics belong to that of the female. Thus, because the butch- femme roles have the potential for being just as sexist as heterosexual roles, they imita te the latter, especially when talking about power relations between two partners. (Weisman and Fernie) According to Judith Roofs article, The Match in the Crocus: Representations of Lesbian Sexuality, the representations of lesbian sexuality in the dominant discourse often evoke the phallus by calling attention to its absence or substitution in sexual relations between women, so that it appears and seems necessary, at least symbolically, because of the inconceivability of sexuality without a phallus present. Therefore, lesbians are often depicted as having appropriated the penis, masquerading as though they really had it, and thereby assuming male privilege and acting upon it. This evokes the stereotypical image of the lesbians by phallocentric discourse and is seemingly embraced by the lesbian community in the form of butch roles. What Roofs analysis makes possible is an understanding of the ways in which the dominant ideology has a vested interest in making the butch femme role playing appear to be a mere replica of heterosexuality, as a way of calming male anxiety over the threat of female appropriation of male dominance. Thus, because the absence of the phallus requires them to achieve the balance through role playing, they merely are merely imitating the heterosexual norms. Butch femme roles were particularly prominent in the working-class lesbian bar culture of the 1940s, 50s, and 60s, where butch-femme relationships were the norm, while butch-butch and femme-femme were taboo (Kennedy and Davis 244/81). Most of the lesbian community existed primarily in bars, since these were the only places where people could gather publicly, break the isolation of lesbian life, and develop both friendships and lover relationships (Kennedy and Davis 243/80). Just as in straight bars, picking up another type in lesbian bars was often the reason for attending the party. Although there are a few exceptions (like Nairobi in Forbidden Love who sent a rose to her desired person), the butch was typically the one who made the first move towards the femme who just sat and looked pretty. This idea of the male butch having to make the first move, replicates the role of a heterosexual male who usually is the one to make the first move at a club. The objective of a butch was to satisfy and keep his femme safe (Weisman and Fernie). This reiterates the notion of one of the partners being in control, strong, and dominant, whereas the other is weak, and needs the help of a man to keep her safe (Weisman and Fernie). This goes hand in hand with the notion of the society that perceives women to be inferior to men because they need a man to look after them. It was always the butch who put up with the discrimination, and bashing to keep their woman safe. Further, the butch is never attracted to another like herself. Rather, she is always attracted to a more feminine type of person (Kennedy and Davis 251/84). This can be paralleled to the idea that heterosexual males are not supposed to be attracted to the same type of person, but of the opposite sex. Therefore, though they are trying to show a discourse to heterosexual relationships, the fact that society is predominantly heterosexual subjected them to the widely known heterosexual st ructure. The role playing in the bedroom does not strictly and always follow pleasure being received only by one partner. Just like the sex life of heterosexual couples butch and femme complement each other in an erotic system in which the butch was expected to be both the giver and the doer (Kennedy and Davis 244/81), however not always. In simpler terms, as shown in Forbidden Love it was always the butch on top, and the femme on the bottom. Though this earned them a destruction of taboo around the sexuality of lesbians, it can be taken further by the notion that in the sex life of heterosexual couples, the female is the one on the bottom, and the male is the one who is taking charge, and dominant, and therefore on top. In contrast to a butch, a stone butch is a woman who is strongly masculine in character and dress, tops her partners sexually (and sometimes emotionally), and who does not wish to be touched genitally. Not all stone butches identify in female terms; some are known to identify with male pronouns, while many stone butches do not even identify themselves with lesbian or within the lesbian community. A common partner for a stone butch is a stone femme; a femme who bottoms sexually or who wishes not to touch the genitals of her stone butch partner. Moreover, the characteristics of stone butches can be found in many men, who wish to pleasure, but do not expect anything in return; that is to be total givers. These men get their zing from pleasuring their woman, identical to the role of a stone butch. (Weisman and Fernie) By wearing the attire of a man, the butches earn privileges that a heterosexual man would have. The femme, or the woman, who wears feminine clothes, does not have the same privileges of that of the males. Wearing manly clothes gives a lot more mobility and freedom to the butches, which parallels the liberation that heterosexual males get and their females do not. Moreover, the only way for women to achieve independence in work and travel and to escape passivity was to pass as men (Kennedy and Davis 245/81). Wearing manly clothes therefore also permitted these men to earn higher salaries and get better jobs (Weissman and Fernie); similar to how getting a job was known to be a mans responsibility in the heterosexual structure. Though there have been ongoing debates on the roles of butch and femmes, there is no doubt that their role playing imitates the functions which are evident in a heterosexual constitution. There are many reasons that have compelled these lesbians into taking up these heterosexual identities; one being the identification and visibility of the role of females in a society dominated by heterosexual notions of relationships, and another being that taking up the male characteristics, was the only way to let the society view their homosexual relationships as somewhat heterosexual. Thus, butches and femmes took on the notion of the heterosexuals by imitating their masculine style of clothing, sex habits, stratified positions and social behaviours.

The Tuskegee Airman Essay -- Papers WW II World War 2 Air Force

The Tuskegee Airman For my term paper I chose the Tuskegee Airman. They will alway be the most influential air squadron during WWII. I think this because there where a lot racist people that did not want them to succeed, but they did more than just succeed. They became the first black Air Force pilots. It all started when President Roosevelt arranged a meeting in September 1940 with three African-American leaders and members of the Army and Navy. During the meeting, the leaders emphasized three points:(1)equal opportunity for jobs in the defense industry, (2)impartial administration of the new draftlaw, and (3)an opportunity for qualified blacks to learn to fly in desegrated units.*1* A few days later after the meeting, the War Department issued a policy directives stating that black men generally would be admitted into the armed force in numbers equivalent to their percentage in the civilian population. But it was not until a couple months after the meeting in December 1940, that the Army Air Corps submitted a plan for the experiment to establish an all-black fighter squadron. The plan was not official until July 19, 1941 when Major General Walter Weaver, commander of the U.S. Army’s Southeastern Air Corps spoke at the Tuskegee Institute Campus.*2* It was then that 13 black men became the first black pilot trainees. Most of the trainees were college graduates, including a policeman, an army officer, a factory inspector, and several young men who were fresh out of college. Also, all of the men were trained at Chanute Air Field in Ratoul, Illinois at the US Army Air Corps Technical Training School. The men of... ...groups. But it was not until 1948 that President Harry S. Truman issued an executive order. This order eventually ended segregation in the US military. In this paper I have represented my thesis statement with good facts and hard evidence that the Tuskegee Airman were and always will be the most influential fighter unit during WWII. Bibliography: Bilbiography #1.Mckissack, Patricia and Fredrick Red Tail Angles United States : Walker Publishing Company, 1995. #2.Harris, Jacqueline The Tuskegee Airman New Jersey: Dillon Press,1996. #3.Hart Philip S. Fly Free Minneapolis,Minnesota: Lerner Publications Company,1992. #4.Rose Robert A. Lonely Eagles Los Angelos,CA: Tuskegee Airman Inc. #5. â€Å"Tuskegee Airman:A Brief History† Tuskegee Airman November 26,1999 http://www.ebonywings.com/tuskegee

Statistics Can Reduce Internet Fraud Essay -- Research Analysis

Many online auction sites help consumers bid on items they might want to possess. These sites include eBay, WebStore, ebid, OnlineAuction, OZtion, Overstock, and a whole slew of others. Currently there is no system to protect consumers from fraudulent sales. When someone bids for an item, consumers trust both the seller and the online auctioneer to be both honest and ethical when presenting items for bid. Many of the auction houses, including Sotheby's and Christie's have their experts examine each piece to prove authenticity. However, it is not all bad news. To help protect consumers from fraud, Joseph Gastwirth and Wesley Johnson have found that the use of statistics answers the problem of authenticity. Joseph Gastwirth is a Professor of Statistics and economics at George Washington University. Wesley Johnson is a Professor of Statistics at the University of California at Irvine. These two men have worked together to produce an article for future print in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society called Series A: Statistics in Society. This paper examines the preview article published in the Significance Magazine entitled "Dare you to buy a Henry Moore on eBay." Using statistics enables then to tell where the frauds are lurking. The Statistics Gastwirth and Johnson used a method similar to that of the Hui-Walter method "used to estimate the accuracy rates of clinical tests and survey classifications. (Gastwirth & Johnson, 2011) This test method utilizes two subpopulations, each with its own prevalence. In the case of the test for authentication of Henry Moore's on the Internet, the two subpopulations were drawings and sculptures, and the second was lithographs and etchings. These two gro... ...hnson, 2011) Figure 2 represents the "maximum likelihood estimates of the two prevalence parameters and accuracy rates of the two evaluators. Maximum likelihood estimates were obtained using the EM algorithm with standard errors based on the bootstrap using the program TAGS." (Gastwirth & Johnson, 2011) TAGS, is a program for the evaluation of test accuracy in the absence of a gold standard. Thus with all questions from Darrell Huff's book "How to Lie With Statistics" answered, we can safely and accurately conclude that the method used by Gastwirth and Johnson can and should be used by those who intend to purchase artwork off the Internet. Works Cited Gastwirth, J. & Johnson, W. (2011, March 14). Dare you to buy a Henry Moore on eBay? Statistics can tell you what to avoid. Significance Magazine, 8(1), 10-14. doi:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2011.00470x.

Gender, Hierarchy and Leadership Essay

Although women’s status has improved remarkably in the 20th century in many societies, women continue to lack access to power and leadership compared with men. This issue reviews research and theory concerning women’s leadership. The articles included in the issue provide evidence of bias in the evaluation of women, discuss effects of gender stereotypes on women’s influence and leadership behaviors, and evaluate strategies for change. This introductory article provides a brief summary of changes in women’s status and power in employment and education and the absence of change at the upper echelons of power in organizations. Also included is an outline of the contributions of the other articles in the issue. It is an exciting period for scholars who study how gender affects leadership: The presence of greater numbers of women in positions of power has produced new opportunities to observe female leaders along with male leaders. There has been an increase in the numbers of women in positions of public leadership, including highly visible positions. Of course, focusing on women who occupy such leadership positions should not cause us to forget that women have always exercised leadership, particularly in families and throughout communities. However, until recently, women were extremely rare in major positions of public leadership. Now women are in a small minority in such roles, but present. Political leadership illustrates this trend: In history only 42 women have ever served as presidents or prime ministers, and 25 of those have come to office in the 1990s (Adler, 1999). Almost all of the women who have attained top positions in corporations around the world have done so in the 1990s. Public interest in women’s potential as leaders is fueled by high-profile women serving in powerful positions; Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, U.S. National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, and former Secretary of State Madeline Albright are just three recent examples from the United States. Many of the newspaper and magazine articles written about these and other female leaders have a positive tone (e.g., Dobbs, 1999; â€Å"A Practical Judicial Eye,† 2000). The idea that women might hold such positions and the suspicion that they might exercise power somewhat differently than men no longer seems as alarming to people as in the past. Indeed, people are receptive to the idea that different might be better or at least not worse than what the nation experiences now. In response to the Gallup Poll’s question, â€Å"Do you think that this country would be governed better or worse if more women were in political office?† 57% of the respondents in the United States chose the response â€Å"better,† with greater endorsement by women (62%) than men (51%; Gallup, 1995). Only 17% of the respondents indicated that such a change would worsen government. The excitement about the presence of just a few women in powerful positions raises the question of why, with women’s roles changing so dramatically in the last decade, the numbers of women in these positions are so small. Indeed, the concept of the glass ceiling was introduced by the Wall Street Journal to account for this disjunction (â€Å"The Corporate Woman,† 1986) and has since been acknowledged by journalists and the public as an invisible but powerful barrier that allows women to advance only to a certain level. Evidence supports the glass ceiling metaphor. By some yardsticks, the United States and other advanced industrial societies appear to be approaching gender equality. In the United States, women have entered the paid labor force in large numbers and now constitute 47% of workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001b). Whereas in 1972 only 18% of managers were female, the proportion of women has steadily increased over time (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1982) and currently women make up 45% of managers and administrators (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001a). In education, women possess 51% of all bachelor’s degrees that have been awarded (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000). Since 1981– 82, more of these degrees have gone to women than men, with women currently receiving 56% (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). Women also possess 45% of the advanced degrees that have been awarded (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000) and currently earn 42% of PhDs and 43% of professional degrees (e.g., those in law or medicine; Morgan, 2001). Although these aggregate statistics on labor force participation and education suggest gender equality, the distributions of men and women in elite leadership positions tell quite a different story. To borrow former President Clinton’s phrase, the tops of managerial and governmental hierarchies do not â€Å"look like America.† In Fortune 500 companies, women constitute only 4% of the top officers, 3% of the most highly paid officers, and 0.4% of CEOs (Catalyst, 2000). In U.S. politics, only 13% of senators, 14% of congressional representatives, and 10% of state governors are women (Center for the American Woman and Politics, 2001). In the military, women make up 2% of the top officers (U.S. Department of Defense, 1998). Although about 30% of lawyers are women, women make up only 15% of law firm partners and 5% of managing partners in large firms (Rhode, 2001). In contrast to the changes in women’s education, labor force participation, and employment as managers, little change has occurred in terms of placing women in the most powerful leadership positions. The lack of women in powerful positions used to be explained by many as a â€Å"pipeline problem,† that is, the interpretation that women with the appropriate education and background were not available. Even though the pipeline explanation remains popular among male CEOs (Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998), its plausibility has been eroded by the dramatic increases in women’s employment as managers. Because the pipeline is full of women, this idea has given way to the glass ceiling in the popular imagination. The glass ceiling is a metaphor for prejudice and discrimination. To the extent that people are prejudiced against women as leaders and potential leaders, this prejudice would manifest itself in many ways and have multiple effects. Prejudice can take subtle or blatant forms and can be held by employers, customers, voters, and even by the targets of prejudice themselves. Prejudice against women as leaders and potential leaders would interfere with women’s ability to gain authority and exercise influence and would produce discrimination when it is translated into personnel decisions within organizations and political structures. Because social psychologists have long studied prejudice and industrial/organizational psychologists have studied managerial roles and organizational processes, the stage is set in these fields for understanding the rarity of women in powerful positions. The authors of the articles in this issue have all made important contributions to this developing kn owledge. Organization of the Issue Bias in the Evaluation of Women Leaders The articles in the first section of the issue present evidence of biased evaluation of women’s competence and potential for leadership, showing that across a wide variety of settings and contexts, women are presumed to be less competent than men and less worthy to hold leadership positions. In the first article of the section, Cecilia L. Ridgeway gives an overview of expectations states theory and proposes that gender differences in influence and leadership occur because people presume that men are more competent and legitimate as leaders than women are. These beliefs foster hierarchical patterns of social interaction through which men exert more influence and exercise more leadership. In support of the theory, Ridgeway reviews research examining gender differences in behavior in taskoriented groups and identifies conditions that modify these differences. In the section’s second article, Madeline E. Heilman reviews research on leadership in organizations, showing that as a consequence of biases against women, people devalue the work of female managers. When the value of that work is impossible to deny, people tend to attribute it to external factors rather than the women’s competence. Finally, when external attributions cannot be made, people dislike and reject successful female managers. Virginia E. Schein’s article, the third in the section, reviews cross-cultural research on bias against female leaders. Studies in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, China, and Japan all reveal that men are perceived to be more qualified as managers than women are, especially by men. In addition, Schein identifies changes in the perception of management over time and discusses why men from different countries with varying political, economic, and social conditions all continue to view women as less competent and suited to leadership than men. In the section’s fourth article, Jennifer Boldry, Wendy Wood, and Deborah A. Kashy describe an empirical study that revealed gender biases against women in a military setting. The authors report that both male and female cadets considered men to have more leadership ability and women to have more character (e.g., integrity, lack of selfishness) than the other sex, perceptions that are congruent with traditional gender stereotypes. Unfortunately for women’s potential in the military, cadets’ success in the corps was best predicted by perceived leadership ability, not perceived character, suggesting that a person’s success in the military depends on conforming to a masculine model of leadership. In the final article in this section, Monica Biernat and Kathleen Fuegen report two new empirical studies documenting shifting standards in evaluating women and men in work and academic settings. Presenting further evidence of bias against women, their findings revealed that female study participants set harsher standards for hiring female than male applicants and were less likely to hire women than men. In contrast to other articles in this issue showing greater gender bias by males than females, male study participants did not show gender biases in their hiring decisions. Gender Effects on Social Influence and Hireability The authors in the issue’s second section provide evidence showing that, in order to be influential, women must combine agentic qualities, such as competence and directiveness, with communal qualities, such as warmth and friendliness. In the first article of the section, Linda L. Carli reviews the literature on gender effects on social influence, reporting that males exert greater influence over others than females do. She argues that this occurs for two reasons. First, females are generally presumed to be less competent than males and therefore less credible as influence agents. Second, when women are perceived to be as competent as men, they are often seen as violating prescriptive gender role norms that require women to be communal. As a result, people, especially males, often dislike highly competent women and reject their contributions. In the section’s second article, Laurie A. Rudman and Peter Glick report on an empirical study that further explores pressures on female job applicants to be both agentic and communal. Results showed that agentic men were considered more socially skilled than agentic women. Moreover, agentic male applicants were considered more hireable than agentic female applicants for jobs requiring both agentic and communal skills. Women who possessed both agentic and communal qualities, however, were considered to be as hireable as their male counterparts, regardless of job requirements. In the third article in this section, Felicia Pratto and Penelope Espinoza discuss the importance of the interaction of race and gender in affecting discrimination in hiring. They report the results of two empirical studies showing that study participants preferred to hire White male job applicants over White female applicants for jobs that enhance group-based hierarchy but did not prefer Black and Hispanic male applicants over Black and Hispanic women for those same jobs. Instead, Blacks and Hispanics were generally more often selected for jobs that attenuated group-based hierarchy than Whites were. Characteristics of Women’s Leadership Leadership has traditionally been construed as a masculine enterprise with special challenges and pitfalls for women. This perception raises the very interesting question of how women lead. The two articles in the issue’s third section discuss current research on gender differences and similarities in the ways men and women perceive themselves as leaders and engage in leadership. In the first of these articles, Alice H. Eagly and Mary C. Johannesen-Schmidt examine the controversy in the popular and academic literatures about whether there are gender differences in leadership style. These authors review the empirical literature on gender differences in leadership style, including recent research on transformational and transactional leadership. They conclude that, although male and female leaders are quite similar in a number of ways, on average they do behave somewhat differently. In the section’s second article, Hilary M. Lips reports an empirical investigation of the ways in which samples of college students from Virginia and Puerto Rico perceive themselves as future leaders. Her findings indicate that both men and women expect to lead in domains that are relatively traditional for their gender— for example, men in business and women in education. Compared with men, women also expect more difficulties in their personal relationships and other negative consequences as a result of their leadership. Strategies for Change The articles in the first three sections of this issue present evidence of gender inequalities in leadership and influence and propose theoretical explanations for these inequalities. This research helps clarify why women are underrepresented in positions of power and provides a framework for identifying possible strategies for reducing gender discrimination. In the final section of this issue, Janice D. Yoder focuses on strategies that can be used to increase women’s emergence and effectiveness as leaders. In particular, she endorses a wide range of organizational strategies for increasing women’s leadership. She also describes individual approaches that women can use to reduce resistance to their leadership but argues that individual approaches, because they demand more of women than men, are inherently unfair. Importance of the Effects of Gender on Hierarchy and Leadership Scholarship on gender has addressed a range of issues in past decades, with early work concentrating on gender stereotypes and sex-differentiated personality traits. An underlying goal of this work was to understand the status of women in society and foster favorable change in women’s status. Although women’s status has risen substantially in the 20th century in many societies, women’s subordination remains apparent in their lack of access to positions of power. Earlier researchers rarely addressed this issue directly. If women are ever to achieve a status equivalent to that of men, however, they will have to participate equally in those contexts where the most important and far-reaching decisions are made. Decision making with major impact on what is valued in societies and how resources are allocated is surely not shared equally by citizens, but concentrated among people who hold positions of power in organizations and governments. Women must be present in sizeable numbers in these settings and must perform effectively in order to produce a balance between male and female power. The research and theory considered in this issue help us understand why power has remained unequally allocated between the sexes and how greater equality can be achieved. References Adler, N. J. (1999). Global leaders: Women of influence. In G. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender & work (pp. 239–261). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Catalyst. (2000). Census of women corporate officers and top earners. New York: Catalyst. Center for the American Woman and Politics. (2001). Fact sheet [On-line]. New Brunswick, NJ: Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers University. Available: http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/ ~cawp/pdf/elective.pdf The corporate woman: A special report. (1986, March 24). Wall Street Journal, 32-page supp. Dobbs, M. (1999, May 2). Becoming Madeline Albright. Washington Post Magazine, p. W11. Gallup, G., Jr. (1995). The Gallup poll. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources. Morgan, F. B. (2001). Degrees and other awards conferred by Title IV participating, degree-granting institutions: 1997–98 [On-line]. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available: http://nces.ed.gov/ pubs2001/quarterly/spring/q5_3.html A practical judicial eye; O’Connor deserves one more first—Ms. Chief Justice. (2000, June 12). The Arizona Republic, p. B6. Ragins, B. R., Townsend, B., & Mattis, M. (1998). Gender gap in the executive suite: CEOs and female executives report on breaking the glass ceiling. Academy of Management Executive, 12, 28–42. Rhode, D. (2001). The unfinished agenda: Women and the legal profession. Chicago: American Bar Association, Commission on Women in the Profession. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2000). Current population reports: Educational attainment in the United States: March 2000. Table 1: Educational attainment of the population 15 years and over, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin [On-line]. Available: http://www.census.gov/population/ socdemo/education/p20-536/tab01.txt U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1982). Labor force statistics derived from the current population survey: A databook (Vol. 1). Bulletin 2096. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001a). Annual average tables from the January 2001 issue of Employment and Earnings. Table 11: Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic origin [On-line]. Available: http://www.bls.gov/cpsaatab.htm U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001b). News: The employment situation: May 2001. Table A-1: Employment status of the civilian population by sex and age [On-line]. Available: http://www. bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf U.S. Department of Defense. (1998). Active duty military personnel by service by rank/grade (for September 30, 1997) [On-line]. Available: http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/military/miltop.htm U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). Digest of educational statistics [On-line]. Available: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/digest/index.html

John Locke – Philosophy

â€Å"The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom. For in all the states of created beings capable of law, where there is no law, there is no freedom† – John Locke. What I feel that John Locke is attempting to express in his quote is that society believes that by having laws in place the government is taking away from the freedom they long to endure. However, by having laws in place it actually helps to enforce their rights to freedom. I chose John Locke as my topic for my final paper because I have taken an interest in the life he led, his inspirations and his role in politics. Read Essay In Westminster Abbey Analysis John Locke was the first of the classical British empiricists. Empiricists believed that all knowledge derives from experience. He became highly influential to the political world, inspiring government representatives such as Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine and James Madison. Locke expressed the radical view that government is morally obliged to serve people by protecting life, liberty and property (n. a, n. d). He explained the principle of checks and balances in order to limit the power of government. He also favored representative government and rule of law. Locke insisted that when government violates individual rights, the people have a right to rebel. His views on individual rights, life, happiness and politics led Locke to become known as the 17th century English Philosopher of the enlightenment. John Locke was born August 29, 1632, in Somerset, England. He was the oldest son of Agnes Keene and John Locke. His father was a Puritan lawyer who served as a clerk for justices of the peace (n. a. , n. d). With the assistance of his father’s connections to the English government, Locke received an exceptional education. In 1647 he enrolled at Westminster School in London, where he earned his distinct honor of being named a King’s Scholar. This was a privilege that went to only select number of boys and set the path for Locke to attend Christ Church, Oxford in 1652 (n. a. , n. d). Christ Church is considered the most prestigious school in Oxford. During this educational time period, Locke engaged in logic and metaphysics. He graduated from Christ Church in 1656 and returned two years later to pursue a Masters of the Arts. This accomplishment soon led to Locke taking on tutorial work at the college. In 1668 Locke was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. The Royal Society is a fellowship of the world’s most eminent scientist and is the oldest scientific academy in continuous existence (n. a. ,n. d. ). Locke then went on to study philosophy and medicine at the University of Oxford and graduated in 1674 with a bachelor’s of medicine. Locke did not want to commit his life to a religious order and therefore turned down a permanent teaching position from Oxford. This opened the doors to an opportunity serving as a private physician and secretary to Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury (Kermerling, 2011). During the summer of 1666, Anthony Ashley Cooper visited Oxford where he met Locke who was at the time studying medicine. Cooper, who was suffering from a liver cyst which threatened to become swollen and infected, requested that Locke be his personal physician. Locke accepted and soon moved into a room at the Cooper’s Exeter House mansion in Westminster, London. Cooper’s condition worsened and Locke was in a position of opportunity to heal the Earl successfully. In 1668, Locke supervised a successfully surgery and save the life of Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury. This honorable act led Locke to become a valued partner of Shaftesbury. After Shaftesbury stature grew, so did Locke’s responsibilities. He assisted in the Earl’s business and political matters and after Shaftsbury was made chancellor, Locke became his secretary of presentations. Locke was involved in just about everything that Shaftsbury did. This included the formation of the Whig party. The Whig party was a political group which consisted of politicians from America, England and Scotland who opposed King Charles I of England. Locke maintained correspondence with the party to assist with influencing Parliamentary elections. Shaftsbury was imprisoned for a year and on his release he helped pass the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679 which made it unlawful for government to detain a person without filing formal charges. The act also specified that an individual could not be put on trial for the same charge more than once (n. a. ,n. d). Shaftesbury was a strong influence to John Locke and helped pave his way for future success through experience – Empiricist. During the reign of King Charles II it was illegal to write, read or have books in one’s possession that pertained to any negative press against the government. Although it was risky, Locke continued his mission. He wrote about his experience with political actions. One treatise attached a claim that the Bible sanctioned tyrants and that parents had absolute authority over children. A second treatise presented an epic case for liberty and the right of people to rebel against tyrants. He pushed to a radical conclusion which attacked slavery and a defense of revolution (n. a. , n. d. ). Locke fled to Rotterdam on September 7, 1683 to avoid legal action (n. a. , n. d. ). The English government tried to have Locke extradited for trial and possible hanging. Lock fled to London and assumed the name â€Å"Dr. van der Linden. † He signed letters as â€Å"Lamy† or â€Å"Dr. Lynne† (n. a. ,n. d. ). Locke assumed that the government would intercept mail, so he protected friends by referring to them with numbers or false names. His excuse to friends for moving to Holland was that he enjoyed the local beer. In Holland, Locke began to work on his philosophical masterpiece, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding which urged people to base their convictions on observation and reason. His argument was that all ideas, simple or complex, are ultimately derived from experience. He challenged the traditional doctrine that learning consisted entirely of reading ancient texts and absorbing religious dogmas (n. . , n. d. ). He maintained that understanding that the world required observation. The essay was published in December 1689, and established Locke as England’s leading philosopher. In the essay, Locke states the nature of his proposed doctrine: â€Å"Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any i deas: – How comes it to be furnished? Whenced comes it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from experience. In that all our knowledge is founded. (Valasquez, 2011)† The book became one of the most widely reprinted and influential works on philosophy. It brought great fame for Locke. So much, that he spent the rest of his life responding to admirers and critics by making revisions in later editions of the book, including detailed accounts of human volition and moral freedom. Locke also published Two Treatise of Civil Government. These writings were published anonymously in order to avoid controversy. The First Treatise is a detailed rejection of the monarchist theories of Robert Filmer. Locke attacked Filmer’s claim that God sanctioned the absolute power of kings. During this time period, such an attack was risky since it could easily be prosecuted as an attack on the King Charles II. The Second Treatise of Government offers a systematic account of the foundations of political obligation. The views expressed within this treatise were so radical that he only released his name as publisher in his will. Locke’s writings did much to inspire the libertarian ideals of the American Revolution. This, in turn, set an example which inspired people throughout Europe, Latin America and Asia. Locke’s philosophy had a great effect on American’s as well. Thomas Jefferson ranked Locke as the most important thinkers on liberty. He also helped inspire Thomas Paine’s radical ideas about revolution. James Madison drew most of his fundamental principles of liberty and government from Locke’s writings. John Locke’s writings were also included in the self-education of Benjamin Franklin. John Adam’s believed that both girls and boys should learn about Locke. Locke’s influence even traveled to France where the French philosopher Voltaire called, â€Å"Locke the man of the greatest wisdom. What he has not seen clearly, I despair of ever seeing† (n. a. , n. d. ). Mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton cherished his company. Locke helped William Penn restore his good name when he was political fugitive, just as Penn had arranged a pardon for Locke when he had been a political fugitive. Locke was described by the famous English physician Dr. Thomas Sydenham as â€Å"a man whom, in the acuteness of his intellect, in the steadiness of his judgment, in the simplicity, that is, in the excellence of his manners, I confidently declare to have, amongst the men of our time, few equals and no superiors. n. a. , n. d. ). It is astonishing that Locke’s work has affected so many people around the world. He was an undistinguished Oxford scholar. He had a brief experience with a failed diplomatic mission. He was a physician who lacked traditional credentials and had only one patient. His first major work was not published until the age of 57. All of this and he is still one of the leading philosophers of all time. In 1691, John Locke is invited to spend his last years with friends Francis and Damaris Masham. Damaris is also a philosopher and is believed to have been romantically involved with Locke uring their study years at Oxford. When Locke left for Holland, Damaris was to visit; however it did not work out and she married Francis Masham (Uzgalis, 2012). During his stay with the Masham’s Locke tutored their son Francis, here he begins to work on his treaties Thoughts Concerning Education. Locke’s health gradually began to worsen. He lost most of his hearing and his legs began to swell. He could barely bring himself to rise from bed. Around 3:00 in the afternoon, Saturday, October 28, 1704 he passed away (n. a , n. d. ). He was sitting in his study with Lady Marsham. Suddenly, he brought his hands to his face, shut his eyes and died. He was 72 years old. Locke’s focus has primarily been based upon the ideas of freedom and equality as a whole. He believed that citizens should naturally possess the right to life, liberty and happiness, which is portrayed in the constitution of the United States. These undisputable rights or natural rights have derived from the law of nature. The law of nature is a state that relies purely on the law of God, which is also known as moral law. This law gave people the natural right to life, liberty, and happiness without question. In addition, Locke believed that people also possess the basic right of self-defense if under attack. However, Locke’s key aspect of his theories was the basic idea of equality. He said that nobody has the right to rule and that consent is critical because it’s based on the premises that all people are equal (Uzgalis, 2012). John Locke is still very much known as a political philosopher in today’s modern society. Because much of Locke’s philosophy centered on subjects such as natural rights and knowledge, he has in-turn shaped American politics in such a way that it has never been the same. Locke has challenged many theories that have to do with inalienable rights as a part of natural law; therefore he had much to do with the involvement in the evolution of the American Government. He taught that, men by nature possess certain rights. He had a tremendous influence on all future political thinking. A clear representation of his involvement is portrayed in the declaration of independence. John Locke was, and will always be remembered as a pioneer in modern thinking.